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This article is part of the series on: Military of ancient Rome (portal) | |||
| Structural history | |||
| Roman army (unit types and ranks, legions, auxiliaries, generals) | |||
| Roman navy (fleets, admirals) | |||
| Campaign history | |||
| Lists of wars and battles | |||
| Decorations and punishments | |||
| Technological history | |||
| Military engineering (castra, siege engines, arches, roads) | |||
| Personal equipment | |||
| Political history | |||
| Strategy and tactics | |||
| Infantry tactics | |||
| Frontiers and fortifications (limes, Hadrian\'s Wall) | |||
A Roman triumph (triumphus, Old Latin triumpus, attested as the exclamation TRIVMPE in the Carmen Arvale; via Etruscan from the Greek θρίαμβος) was a civil ceremony and religious rite of ancient Rome, held to publicly honour the military commander (dux) of a notably successful foreign war or campaign and to display the glories of Roman victory. Men who had received this accolade were called triumphators.
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In order to receive a triumph, the dux must:
The last requirement sometimes led to deserving men being denied triumphs, or triumphs being granted on dubious grounds. It should also be noted that the enemy had to be foreign. Internal conflicts, in theory, did not merit triumphs. The enemy also had to be of equal status. Defeating a slave revolt was not a cause for triumph. Often an ovation was granted for a successful campaign which did not meet the requirements of a full triumph. After the establishment of the Principate, only members of the Imperial family were awarded with triumphs. Other citizens were awarded with Ornamenta triumphalia (triumphal regalia), so that the Imperial family could better keep hold on avenues to power and advancement.
Detail from the Arch of Titus showing his triumph after the Sack of Jerusalem in 78.
The order of the triumphal parade was:
The imperator himself is painted red and wears a corona triumphalis, a tunica palmata and a toga picta. He is accompanied in the chariot by a slave holding a golden wreath above his head. The slave also constantly reminds the commander of his mortality by whispering into his ear. The exact words are not known for certainty, but the suggestions include "Respica te, hominem te memento" ("Look behind you, remember you are only a man") and "Memento mori" ("Remember (that you are) mortal").
Often the exact order of triumphal progression was augmented by the triumphator by adding exotic animals, musicians and slaves carrying pictures of conquered cities and signs with names of conquered peoples.
The ceremony of the triumph began with the triumphator waiting outside the Servian Walls in the Campus Martius, on the western bank of the Tiber. He would then enter city in his chariot through the Porta Triumphalis, only opened for these occasions. Simultaneously he entered the pomerium and technically surrendered his command. At the gate the triumphator was met by the senate and the magistrates, who would then accompany him.
The parade then proceeded through the streets of Rome along a strict route. From the Porta Triumphalis the progression went along the Via Triumphalis (which centuries later was reopened as the current Via dei Fori Imperiali by Benito Mussolini) to Circus Flaminius and Circus Maximus. Frequently, but not always, the captured enemy ruler or general was taken to the Tullianum and there strangled (this was the fate of Jugurtha and Vercingetorix, though some enemy leaders, such as Zenobia of Palmyra, were spared). Then the triumphator rode to the Forum along the Via Sacra and ascended the Capitoline Hill to the Temple of Iuppiter Capitolinus, the final destination. The route would be lined with cheering crowds who would shower the triumphator with flowers.
At the Capitoline Hill the triumphator sacrificed white bulls to Jupiter. He then entered the temple to offer his wreath to the god as a sign that he had no intentions of becoming the king of Rome. After this, the official part of the ceremony was over. However, unofficial festivities continued, temples were kept open and incense burned at the altars. The soldiers would disperse to the city to celebrate. Often a banquet was served for the citizens in the evening.
To better celebrate the triumph, a monument was sometimes erected. This is the origin of the Arch of Titus and the Arch of Constantine, not far from the Colosseum, or perhaps near a battle site as is the case for the Tropaeum Traiani. Also, the monumental Meta Sudans was erected by the Flavians to mark the point where the triumph route turned from the Via Triumphalis into the Via Sacra and the Forum.
The origin of the triumphal ceremony is shrouded by antiquity, but perhaps derives from earlier Etruscan rituals. Traditionally, the first triumphator was Romulus. During the approximately 1200 years of the history Western Roman Empire about 500 triumphs were celebrated. During the history of the rite it became more and more elaborate. The Roman Emperors could grant themselves triumphs at a whim, and therefore in real meaning and importance faded.
Due to changes in the ritual it is difficult to determine what is a "real" Roman triumph in the late period. Therefore it is also impossible to say who was the last triumphator. The candidates include emperor Honorius (403) and Flavius Belisarius (ostensibly "sitting in" for Emperor Justinian I), in recognition for his victory over the Vandals. It was held in Constantinople in 534.
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